COCOA FARMS FOR SMALL SCALE MINING (ASM) AND EFFECTS ON THE INHABITANTS OF THE TOYA COMMUNITY OF THE DADIESO DISTRICT OF WESTERN NORTH REGION OF GHANA

1.0 Background to the StudyThe extraction of geo-resources including precious minerals such as gold and diamond is a global phenomenon undertaken across developed and developing countries alike. However, in recent years, a combination of factors, notably strict land-use policies and the continuous depletion of mineral resources in developed countries has … See more

1.0 Background to the StudyThe extraction of geo-resources including precious minerals such as gold and diamond is a global phenomenon undertaken across developed and developing countries alike. However, in recent years, a combination of factors, notably strict land-use policies and the continuous depletion of mineral resources in developed countries has redirected the bulk of mineral extraction activities to mineral-rich global south countries ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/j.resourpol.2016.11.010","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Moomen","given":"Abdul Wadood","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Resources Policy","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]},"page":"85-93","title":"Strategies for managing large-scale mining sector land use conflicts in the global south","type":"article-journal","volume":"51"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=7bb669e3-5ba3-4a16-baca-16c05f193877","http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=ed13fbec-4859-4a95-8298-3aaff99e4b8b"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Moomen, 2017)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Moomen, 2017)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Moomen, 2017)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Moomen, 2017). Following the recommendations of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF), many developing economies liberalized regulations on economic restructuring programs 1980s ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/j.exis.2016.01.006","ISSN":"2214-790X","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Patel","given":"Kayla","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Rogan","given":"John","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Cuba","given":"Nicholas","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Bebbington","given":"Anthony","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"The Extractive Industries and Society","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"2","issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]},"page":"450-463","publisher":"Elsevier Ltd.","title":"Evaluating conflict surrounding mineral extraction in Ghana: Assessing the spatial interactions of large and small-scale mining","type":"article-journal","volume":"3"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=578d9218-bb6a-4152-bfa9-a2ff9d4c8d86","http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=6742bcb3-e1bc-4db9-8b75-bda341396b8f"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Patel et al., 2016)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Patel et al., 2016)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Patel et al., 2016)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Patel et al., 2016). Ghana, through its Mineral Mining Law (Law 153) introduced formal licensing procedures as a way of guaranteeing tenure security as well as reductions in taxes and royalties for foreign companies ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/j.exis.2020.04.013","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Johnson","given":"Mckenzie F","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Laurent","given":"Rebecca L","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Kwao","given":"Benjamin","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"The Extractive Industries and Society","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2020"]]},"page":"1-10","title":"Constructing a crisis: The effect of resource curse discourse on extractive governance in Ghana","type":"article-journal"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=19ed5144-94b3-44d1-b344-5d5f67cdb37e","http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=92aae883-d271-4db5-ad2f-6531d2a7ac65"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Johnson et al., 2020)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Johnson et al., 2020)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Johnson et al., 2020)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Johnson et al., 2020). According to ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/j.exis.2016.01.006","ISSN":"2214-790X","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Patel","given":"Kayla","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Rogan","given":"John","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Cuba","given":"Nicholas","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Bebbington","given":"Anthony","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"The Extractive Industries and Society","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"2","issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]},"page":"450-463","publisher":"Elsevier Ltd.","title":"Evaluating conflict surrounding mineral extraction in Ghana: Assessing the spatial interactions of large and small-scale mining","type":"article-journal","volume":"3"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=6742bcb3-e1bc-4db9-8b75-bda341396b8f","http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=578d9218-bb6a-4152-bfa9-a2ff9d4c8d86"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Patel et al., 2016)","manualFormatting":"Patel et al. (2016)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Patel et al., 2016)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Patel et al., 2016)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}Patel et al. (2016), the expansion of mineral extraction and related activities was grounded in its ability to spur economic advancement through the creation of livelihood opportunities and the generation of many national revenue streams such as export earnings. A well-established outcome of the liberalization of many extractive industries globally has been the continuous growth in the mineral extraction sector across numerous resource-rich rural developing country contexts ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/j.envsci.2020.02.005","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Ofosu","given":"George","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Dittmann","given":"Andreas","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Sarpong","given":"David","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Botchie","given":"David","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Environmental Science & Policy","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2020"]]},"page":"210-220","title":"Socio-economic and environmental implications of Artisanal and Small-scale Mining (ASM) on agriculture and livelihoods","type":"article-journal","volume":"106"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=a5391a98-e7d5-4b2d-97ae-8f2e40df8fe2","http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=ac5f01ee-3188-48bd-86fa-50a7935b2b52"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Ofosu et al., 2020)","manualFormatting":"(Ofosu, Dittmann, Sarpong, & Botchie, 2020; Patel et al., 2016)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Ofosu et al., 2020)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Ofosu et al., 2020)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Ofosu, Dittmann, Sarpong, & Botchie, 2020; ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/j.exis.2016.01.006","ISSN":"2214-790X","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Patel","given":"Kayla","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Rogan","given":"John","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Cuba","given":"Nicholas","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Bebbington","given":"Anthony","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"The Extractive Industries and Society","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"2","issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]},"page":"450-463","publisher":"Elsevier Ltd.","title":"Evaluating conflict surrounding mineral extraction in Ghana: Assessing the spatial interactions of large and small-scale mining","type":"article-journal","volume":"3"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=6742bcb3-e1bc-4db9-8b75-bda341396b8f","http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=578d9218-bb6a-4152-bfa9-a2ff9d4c8d86"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Patel et al., 2016)","manualFormatting":"Patel et al., 2016","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Patel et al., 2016)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Patel et al., 2016)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}Patel et al., 2016). Contributing to this is the influx and proliferation of foreign mineral extraction entities particularly artisanal and small-scale miners (ASM). A typical exemplification of this in the case of Ghana is the visible presence of Chinese miners in the country’s ASM mining space ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/j.landusepol.2020.104706","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Hilson","given":"Gavin","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Maconachie","given":"Roy","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Land Use Policy","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2020"]]},"page":"1-11","title":"For the Environment: An Assessment of Recent Military Intervention in Informal Gold Mining Communities in Ghana","type":"article-journal","volume":"96"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=a9f3c5d3-ceb9-4ed0-833d-c1c94d2d1eac","http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=bc54ec36-c6f9-4d34-b55d-85cb133f584c"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Hilson & Maconachie, 2020)","manualFormatting":"(Hilson & Maconachie 2020; Botchwey & Crawford, 2018)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Hilson & Maconachie, 2020)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Hilson & Maconachie, 2020)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Hilson & Maconachie 2020; ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1017/S0001972018000517","ISBN":"0001972018000","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Botchwey","given":"Gabriel","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Crawford","given":"Gordon","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Africa","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"4","issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]},"page":"867-870","title":"Resource politics and the impact of Chinese involvement in small-scale mining in Ghana","type":"article-journal","volume":"88"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=723cb0eb-f564-4792-8233-3e9c2c824155","http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=276028bc-aab2-4f87-8580-844964ea1f34"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Botchwey & Crawford, 2018)","manualFormatting":"Botchwey & Crawford, 2018","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Botchwey & Crawford, 2018)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Botchwey & Crawford, 2018)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}Botchwey & Crawford, 2018). The foregoing growth in the artisanal and small-scale mining activities is argued to present a development dilemma to Ghanaian policymakers ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/j.futures.2013.11.005","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Hirons","given":"Mark","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Futures","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2014"]]},"page":"21-31","title":"Decentralising natural resource governance in Ghana: Critical reflections on the artisanal and small-scale mining sector","type":"article-journal","volume":"62"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=0c914e88-f14b-4fdb-8a47-5b5f147011e5","http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=de789d20-0da5-4c83-bc02-a6532fdaaa2d"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Hirons, 2014)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Hirons, 2014)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Hirons, 2014)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Hirons, 2014). While the sector directly employs over a million people and further creates other related livelihood opportunities along the ASM value chain, it nonetheless robs many rural folks of their land-based sources of livelihood ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/j.resourpol.2017.09.009","ISSN":"0301-4207","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Hilson","given":"Gavin","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Resources Policy","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]},"page":"109-116","publisher":"Elsevier Ltd","title":"Shootings and burning excavators: Some rapid reflections on the Government of Ghana's handling of the informal Galamsey mining ‘menace’","type":"article-journal","volume":"54"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=079572be-5e99-4952-aec4-43de93ca532c","http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=36788bd5-3d6f-47db-b308-e5d17cda8860"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Hilson, 2017)","manualFormatting":"(Hilson, 2017; Johnson et al., 2020)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Hilson, 2017)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Hilson, 2017)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Hilson, 2017; ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/j.exis.2020.04.013","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Johnson","given":"Mckenzie F","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Laurent","given":"Rebecca L","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Kwao","given":"Benjamin","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"The Extractive Industries and Society","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2020"]]},"page":"1-10","title":"Constructing a crisis: The effect of resource curse discourse on extractive governance in Ghana","type":"article-journal"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=92aae883-d271-4db5-ad2f-6531d2a7ac65","http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=19ed5144-94b3-44d1-b344-5d5f67cdb37e"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Johnson et al., 2020)","manualFormatting":"Johnson et al., 2020","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Johnson et al., 2020)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Johnson et al., 2020)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}Johnson et al., 2020). The latter often occurs through various means including water pollution and land degradation due to the use of chemicals such as mercury in their operations ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/j.envsci.2020.02.005","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Ofosu","given":"George","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Dittmann","given":"Andreas","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Sarpong","given":"David","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Botchie","given":"David","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Environmental Science & Policy","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2020"]]},"page":"210-220","title":"Socio-economic and environmental implications of Artisanal and Small-scale Mining (ASM) on agriculture and livelihoods","type":"article-journal","volume":"106"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=ac5f01ee-3188-48bd-86fa-50a7935b2b52","http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=a5391a98-e7d5-4b2d-97ae-8f2e40df8fe2"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Ofosu et al., 2020)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Ofosu et al., 2020)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Ofosu et al., 2020)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Ofosu et al., 2020). According to ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/j.landusepol.2020.104825","ISSN":"0264-8377","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Shackleton","given":"Ross T","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Land Use Policy","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2020"]]},"page":"1-11","publisher":"Elsevier","title":"Loss of land and livelihoods from mining operations: A case in the Limpopo Province, South Africa","type":"article-journal","volume":"99"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=1f1db46c-3303-45e4-9d60-be9fcb634df2","http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=a712fa79-aae6-4b7b-8ce8-f4a76b0c623a"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Shackleton, 2020)","manualFormatting":"Shackleton (2020)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Shackleton, 2020)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Shackleton, 2020)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}Shackleton (2020), rural communities are heavily dependent on their access to cultivable lands to maintain sustainable livelihood, hence losing such lands to ASM renders many vulnerable and their well-being threatened ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/j.resourpol.2007.11.001","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Banchirigah","given":"Sadia Mohammed","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Resources Policy","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2008"]]},"page":"29-38","title":"Challenges with eradicating illegal mining in Ghana: A perspective from the grassroots","type":"article-journal","volume":"33"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=8e001718-5f8b-4012-9583-41d75fc2573b","http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=ff1aa60a-6754-4d3f-a4ca-ee4808c96715"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Banchirigah, 2008)","manualFormatting":"(Banchirigah, 2008; Shackleton, 2020)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Banchirigah, 2008)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Banchirigah, 2008)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Banchirigah, 2008; ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/j.landusepol.2020.104825","ISSN":"0264-8377","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Shackleton","given":"Ross T","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Land Use Policy","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2020"]]},"page":"1-11","publisher":"Elsevier","title":"Loss of land and livelihoods from mining operations: A case in the Limpopo Province, South Africa","type":"article-journal","volume":"99"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=a712fa79-aae6-4b7b-8ce8-f4a76b0c623a","http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=1f1db46c-3303-45e4-9d60-be9fcb634df2"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Shackleton, 2020)","manualFormatting":"Shackleton, 2020","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Shackleton, 2020)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Shackleton, 2020)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}Shackleton, 2020). Within this strand of literature, small scale miners, particularly the informal typologies locally referred to as ‘galamsey’ operators are depicted as opportunistic criminals and greedy individuals seeking to get rich quick ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/j.futures.2013.11.005","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Hirons","given":"Mark","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Futures","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2014"]]},"page":"21-31","title":"Decentralising natural resource governance in Ghana: Critical reflections on the artisanal and small-scale mining sector","type":"article-journal","volume":"62"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=de789d20-0da5-4c83-bc02-a6532fdaaa2d","http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=0c914e88-f14b-4fdb-8a47-5b5f147011e5"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Hirons, 2014)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Hirons, 2014)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Hirons, 2014)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Hirons, 2014) and in the process undermine the sustainable livelihoods of the ‘helpless’ rural cadre through destruction of their farmlands ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/j.landusepol.2018.04.045","ISSN":"0264-8377","author":[{"dropping-particle":"Van","family":"Bockstael","given":"Steven","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Land Use Policy","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]},"page":"1-11","publisher":"Elsevier","title":"Land grabbing “from below”? Illicit artisanal gold mining and access to land in post-con fl ict Côte d’Ivoire","type":"article-journal"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=32799085-9538-4c02-bfba-426e138dcf23","http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=8ef41f59-9a8a-4978-9204-6fc10e57b7c8"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Bockstael, 2018)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Bockstael, 2018)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Bockstael, 2018)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Bockstael, 2018). Yet recent evidence suggests that often mutual beneficial agreements are reached between the two parties before farmlands are leased to small-scale miners for compensations ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/j.landusepol.2018.04.045","ISSN":"0264-8377","author":[{"dropping-particle":"Van","family":"Bockstael","given":"Steven","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Land Use Policy","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]},"page":"1-11","publisher":"Elsevier","title":"Land grabbing “from below”? Illicit artisanal gold mining and access to land in post-con fl ict Côte d’Ivoire","type":"article-journal"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=8ef41f59-9a8a-4978-9204-6fc10e57b7c8","http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=32799085-9538-4c02-bfba-426e138dcf23"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Bockstael, 2018)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Bockstael, 2018)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Bockstael, 2018)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}(Bockstael, 2018). The foregoing, therefore, creates a emerging area of research with regards to the nature of compensations received by landowners (farmers) and the livelihood altering effects of such an undertaken. It is against this background that this study seeks to explore the phenomenon using the case of Toya, a rural farming community in the Western-North Region of Ghana.

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